Principles of Taxation Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Principles of Taxation Law - Case Study Example A supply will not be regarded as a 'taxable supply' to the extent that it is a 'GST-Free' supply or an 'input taxed' supply. The GST payable is calculated at 10 percent of the value of the consideration that entity receives for making the supply (excluding GST). Entities registered for GST are entitled to claim input tax credits for the GST included in the costs of various goods and services that the business has acquired for its activities. "However where an acquisition relates to input taxed supplies, the registered entity may be restricted in its ability to claim input tax credits for that acquisition depending on the purpose of the acquisition and the supplies to which it relates"3. Depending on the size of the turnover the entities registered for GST are subjected to certain reporting obligations. The entities are required to prepare and lodge with the Australian Tax Office (ATO) GST returns on a monthly, quarterly or annual basis. The entities whose turnover is more than A$ 20 million per annum are required to file the GST returns on a monthly basis. ... On the contrary if the input tax on the acquisition is more than the amount the entity is liable to pay then the entity is entitled for a refund from the ATO. Tax Credits on Land Purchase: As per the GST rules if the land is purchased after 30th June 2000, then the input tax credit on the land purchased can be claimed. However this claim for tax credit is subject to the condition that the sale to the entity must be a taxable supply and was not subjected to any margin scheme. In this case since the GST of 10 percent has been paid on the land cost while purchasing the trust can claim tax credit for the GST amount paid on the land cost. In respect of other capital items purchased like kitchen outfit, tables and chairs and cutleries the trust can claim the input tax credit of any GST included in the items purchased. This also covers the GST included in the services acquired after paying GST. The trust should have invoices for all the purchases it has made in order to claim the input tax credits. "Some supplies of goods and services will be GST-free, for example basic food, exports and some health services. This means that GST will not be included in the price of these goods and services."4 Calculation of Taxable Income: The calculation of the taxable income of the trust is shown below: Description Amount A$ Sales 165,000 Add: Closing Stock 8,000 Total Revenue 173,000 Less : Expenses Purchases 33,000 Wages 40,000 Superannuation 3,600 Administrations Costs 8,000 Interest 12,000 Demolition Costs 5,500 Total Expenses 102,100 Net Income 62,900 Income Adjusted for Tax Purposes: Gross Income as per Statement A$

Imperialism Essay Example for Free

Imperialism Essay One negative effect imperialism had been that the Africans were being stripped of their land. In document 4 an African proverb states that â€Å"the whites† had taken their land and changed their faith, displaying the amount of power â€Å"the whites† have. Europeans first sent out missionaries to spread their religion to these non-industrialized countries. After the Europeans have set their religion in they would bring in the big guns and take their land. A West African nationalist, Sekou Toure, describes how imperialists look down upon Africans as savages who couldn’t rule and absorbed colonies into their empire, his purpose for the document was possibly to unite people against the whites. The imperialists would basically bully weaker countries until they lacked self-confidence and just eventually give up their land. Once the imperialists absorbed these colonies they would use their raw materials to support their industrialization back at their homeland. Although it appears that Africans being stripped of their land is a negative effect, a journal containing entries about country invasion by a military officer would help to clarify whether this is true. Another negative impact imperialism had been the exploitation of Africans for work. An unknown artist drew a picture of an Asian man and an African man pulling a military officer in a wagon to show the power that European nations have above others. Bigger/more powerful nations are taking advantage of the people settled in lands that aren’t industrialized or as rich. David Diop displayed how â€Å"The White Man† takes advantage of in Africans in An Anthology of West African Verse that describes the death of his father and brother and his mother being raped. In the second to last line Diop called â€Å"The White Man† the â€Å"Conqueror† because he truly did conquer Diop’s family and freedom. The â€Å"Conqueror† left Diop with nothing except forcing him into slavery. A German cartoon titled â€Å"Thus colonize the English† shows a man in uniform squeezing coins out of an African while another man is feeding the African water and a priest preaching in the background. The purpose of this illustration is to show the only value/importance an African American has is for its use of labor. Europeans see indigenous people as a way for them to make money. Mistreatment and forcing religion onto these people was common in order for them to have â€Å"power† of them. Although it appears that Africans were exploited by imperialist Europeans for work, a survey of the amount of pay African workers receive and their type of labor would help to clarify whether this is true. Imperialism did bring out a positive effect that was that the industrialized European nations and non-industrialized, agricultural societies both benefited from each other. O. P. Austin, the author of â€Å"Does Colonization Pay†, described how imperialism benefits progressive nations and the tropic colonies. This was written to persuade/inform the skeptics or people against imperialism. The positive effects would be that if the tropic colonies allowed the progressive nations to control garden spots then in return they would build schools and roads. These progressive nations claimed that they gave â€Å"these people the benefit of other blessings of civilization which they have not the means of creating themselves. † The document Imperialism and World Politics by Parker T.  Moore explains the different groups of people involved in imperialism to show the chain of command/importance. Imperialism involves more than just the military that take over the land, manufacturers have interest in colonial markets, and bankers are the most important because the money used for loan to build ships and railways. Although it appears that both nations benefitted from imperialism, newspaper articles from both nations about the status of their economy and politics would help to clarify whether this is true.

Globalization Economy Nicaraguan

Globalization Economy Nicaraguan Globalization has had a great impact in the modern world, and has even come to affect the economy of several Latin American countries. However, has globalization affected the Nicaraguan Economical panorama? In order to answer this question, it is important to take Nicaraguas history into account, a history that has been smeared with endless corruption. Another idea that must be kept in mind is the term â€Å"globalization† has numerous amounts of definitions, so in order to identify the answer; a proper definition must be structured. Within the context of globalization, it is trivial to identify if the key treaties like the ALBA and the CAFTA have had any significant effect on the Nicaraguan economy. Through a careful evaluation, it will be noticed that Globalization has not had an impact in the Nicaraguan Economy yet; however the roots of globalization can already be traced to the economy. One of the limitations found in this research paper was the gathering of different sources from the rural sectors of the country, as the rural perspective of this essay is of much importance to define if globalization has affected Nicaragua or not. Introduction Globalization has started to influence the Nicaraguan economic scheme from the beginning of the 21st century. The Nicaraguan population should ask themselves if globalization would aid the economic stance they are in. Another question that must be asked is if the new trade agreements will benefit or harm the private sector of the rural Nicaraguan farmers. The last question to be answer is, â€Å"Globalization from what side?† as the American Hemisphere seems to be structured with a strong Capitalist giant on the top, The United States of America, and numerous amounts of underdeveloped Socialist countries, which can be said to be most of South America, consisting of Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Bolivia, Uruguay all have socio-democratic governments, that exercise populist tendencies. Another point that should be kept in mind is the choice between the ALBA and the CAFTA, as the socio-democratic alignment that Nicaragua currently has should be kept in mind. Both treaties should be considered in the â€Å"global† sense as there are currently four enlisted countries in the ALBA agreement, which are Venezuela, Cuba, Nicaragua, Bolivia and Ecuador; while the CAFTA is conformed of The United States, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Dominican Republic and Costa Rica. The main concern in regards to globalization may not even be of an economic impact, but rather on of an ideological degree. The Nicaraguan populations view on globalization is of a loss of national pride, as if the United States would take over the countrys economy; which to some extent is true. The ideological conflict, however, stands on whether to be a nationalist, a socialist or a capitalist. Nicaraguas preferences must be examined in order to determine if globalization will have an effect in the Nicaraguan economy. Nicaragua has a long history of corruption that can be traced back to the 1930s with the Somoza dynasty, and can then be followed along the list of Somoza family members onto the Sandinista Mandate and then into the 21st century with the newly elected â€Å"liberal parties†. It is important to recognize Nicaraguas background in order to determine if Globalization will benefit or harm the economy. In order to truly define the â€Å"sort† of globalization that suits Nicaragua best, a definitely structured definition must be established, as â€Å"globalization† is wide in the range of it meaning. Definition of Globalization The definition of globalization can be branched into three main concepts. The first of the concepts can be referred to as the â€Å"broad† point of view, in which globalization is interpreted without inclinations towards the foreign or domestic perspectives. In this notion, we call â€Å"globalization† when a company or multi-national industry invests capital in a usually underdeveloped economy such as Nicaragua. The other two perspectives stray apart when the question of â€Å"why would the companies invest in underdeveloped countries?† is asked. The â€Å"Imperialist† perspective bases itself on the moral principal of stimulating under developed countrys economies. In this lay out, a corporation such as Nike sets out a factory in the under developed country in order to provide jobs for the grand unemployed population. By providing such work, the corporation is thus permitted to pay low fees to its new employees. If a company does not wish to set up a factory in a new location, they can still enter the local markets through Commerce treaties. In Nicaragua there are two possible treaties, the CAFTA (Central America Free Trade Agreement) and the ALBA (Alternativa Bolivariana), the CAFTA being the most suitable, as it permits United States owned companies to compete in local markets. Taking the Imperialist point of view, the local population is given new choices in the market from which to buy from, choices that are sometimes less expensive and thus more economically feasible for a greater part of the population. The â€Å"Anti-imperialist† perspective, otherwise known as the down side to globalization, regards globalization as â€Å"Economic terrorism†. This point of view focuses on the injustices that these corporations bring upon the under developed countries. The first injustice is the claim that these companies pay a misery of a fee to the employees thus only keeping them busy instead of â€Å"feeding them†, reason for why this low pay condition is usually referred to as a â€Å"Sweat-Shops†. The most impacting injustice would be the fact that these corporations are allowed to compete in local markets. The reason for this claim is that the foreign companies offer products of a cheaper nature, and therefore encourage the local merchants to buy foreign products instead of local ones. Once the local products are not consumed, the national domestic companies thus run out of business placing people out of work. The only form of globalization encouraged in Nicaragua, is one through the ALBA agreement, as the conditions in this treaty are of Self-Growth concepts between allied Latin American countries Venezuela, Bolivia, and Nicaragua. Nicaraguas Economic Background during the Somoza era and the Sandinistas. In the 1936, the Nicaraguan population elected Anastasio Somoza Garcia to power. At this moment, the Nicaraguan economy is on the rise. The main exports were cattle and coffee, settling Nicaragua as one of the richest countries of Central America in the first half of the 20th century. Somoza Garcia, however set Nicaraguas faith by providing the United States with raw materials during World War Two for the Allied war effort. This close association with the United States set the Nicaraguas economical and political dependence to the will of the United States. During his presidency; however, he did not increase the Nicaraguan Economy to a significant degree, instead hes main dedication was of a personal extent. Somoza Garcias tactics consisted of diverting government funds to his own accounts, and purchasing government lands at ridiculously low prices. While the Nicaraguan economy remained at a flat constant, Somoza Garcias personal Bank accounts were at an all time raise. During the wartime, he attained numerous facilities to which income was due, facilities such as a cement factory, the national railroad, a cement factory, most textile plants, several electric power companies, the national airlines, and an extensive control over the banks. His personal income, after World War Two, was estimated to have been of 60 million dollars. After Somoza Garcias death in 1956, his younger son Anastasio Somoza Debayle took control of the presidency and succeeds his father in power. A few years later, after a rigged election, Luis Somoza Debayle, Anastasio Somozas older son, took control of the Nicaraguan presidency. During Luis Somozas presidency, the Nicaraguan economy was hit with a drop in Coffee production, as now the competitions for their main product had been expanded onto other locations and were purchased at even lower prices, causing Nicaragua to drop prices as well. It wasnt the coffee drop, however, that caused many grievances to the Nicaraguan Economy, it was the 1972 Earthquake that caused $15 million in damages. Richard Nixon, however, aided the Nicaraguan government with a donation of $50 million. The Nicaraguan Treasury only reported $17 million of that donation, while the other $33 million was believed to be in Luis Somozas personal bank accounts abroad. It was until 1980 that the Somoza dynasty was replaced by another sort of mandate, a leftist government. In 1980, the United States lifted its â€Å"protective shield† over the Somoza family and allowed internal social conflicts to rise out of control. Luis Somoza was then pressured by the United States to leave Nicaragua with the threat of freezing bank accounts that were located in United States banks. The country was therefore left in the hands of the Revolutionary party F.S.L.N (Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional, which is translated to â€Å"Sandinista Front, for National Liberation†), which was commanded by Daniel Ortega. At the moment the F.S.L.N gained presidential authorities, the economic situation had an incredible deficit as major loans were issued from the World Bank. The F.S.L.N, or the Sandinista party for short, did not play a significant role for the Nicaraguan Economy, as their main intentions remained to â€Å"restore the social injustice†. Governmental and private lands were both confiscated and given to the Nicaraguan population as a sort of Land Reform. Not all the land was given to â€Å"the people†, most of it was kept by the high ranking officers such as Daniel Ortega, his brother Humberto Ortega, his right-hand man Tomas Borge and several other Sandinista generals. The countrys economic status dropped from being one of the richest countries in Central America, to being the poorest in the American Hemisphere, preceding only Haiti on the list. It is said by the Director of the Nicaraguan Economic Institute during the 1980s, father Xabier Golostiaga, that â€Å"the Sandinista government, when they took power, found a country with no financial resources†, and also stated that only 3.5 million dollars were found from the 19 banks that were nationalized; however, according Father Golostiaga, Nicaragua inherited a debt of $1.6 billion dollars, while more than half of that money was never used on the Nicaraguan grounds. Even though the Sandinista government is still regarded as a group of â€Å"bandits† in Nicaragua, they did relieve a great percentage of the external debt that Nicaragua had attained during the Somoza dynasty. At the beginning of the Sandinista mandate, influences shifted from the United States the Soviet Union. Nicaragua would engage in trade with the USSR instead of the United States, as the United States had placed Nicaragua in a sort of Financial Boycott. Once the Cold War was over, and ties with the USSR started to shed, the Sandinista government seemed to lose its grasp over the governmental panorama. In 1990, the Sandinista government accepted elections to go forth, losing to candidate Violeta Barrios de Chamarro of the U.N.O party (National Opposition Union). The Nicaraguan Economic panorama (between 1991 and 2007). In 1991, after the Nicaraguan Revolution and the decline of a communist dictatorship, finally, the first liberal government was established during the globalization era. The UNO mandate, cleared much of the economic rubble that the Sandinista dictatorship had left behind. During Violeta Barrioss presidency, she was denied compensation by the United States for damages during the â€Å"Contras† period. After this, donations from European countries were effected, as Nicaragua still remained the worlds second poorest country. It can be said that Nicaragua was institutionalized in a sort of rehabilitation for 7 years in order to get on its feet again. Seven years later, elections were carried out and the Nicaraguan , where people elected Arnoldo Aleman as president from the Liberal Constitutional Party (PLC). At this moment the economy was â€Å"up and running†; and was receiving donation from developed countries, receiving the most from Spain. Besides the flow of income, due to chronic corruption during his government, a 50 million dollar deficit was filed. Arnoldo Aleman had been diverting governmental funds to a private bank account in Switzerland and was arrested for corruption, and money laundry. Corruption had once again been in the hands of a single man. In 2001, Nicaragua saw yet another election, in which Arnoldos vice-president was elected president, president Enrique Bolanos. Nicaraguas economy suffered a stalemate, as president Bolanoss presidency served to â€Å"clean the corruption of the political panorama† and to pay off most of the debts that Nicaragua has inherited during the Sandinistas regime and the Somoza dynasty. The Economic effects of the ALBA and the CAFTA agreements. The CAFTA and the ALBA treaties share similarities within their texts; however, both treaties are approached from different perspectives. The ALBA treaty, is not just considered a treaty, according to Hugo Chavez, it is a bond between Latin American countries, and as Chavez stated: â€Å"Latin America will save itself alone†. So far, there are only 5 members to the ALBA treaty, which members are: Cuba, Nicaragua, Ecuador, Bolivia and Venezuela. The CAFTA on the other hand is seen as simply a â€Å"treaty† between the United States and Central America and the Dominican Republic. This approach by the United States has â€Å"scared off† most of the trust among the population, as it suits the symptoms of an economically manipulative doctrine. The points of the CAFTA are expressed as follows: President Hugo Chà ¡vez in his intervention in ALADI has summarized the principals ALBA as the following topics: 1. To promote the fight against the poverty 2. To preserve the autonomy and Latin American identity 3. The transference of technology, the technical assistance 4. The formation of human resources 5. To prioritize national companies us public beings suppliers 6. The agreements could not be obstacle to the diffusion of the scientific and technological progress 7. To face the abuse of the monopolies and oligopolies through effective mechanisms that assure fare competition 8. The foreign investors will not be able to demand the countries by the handling of state monopolies of public interest 9. Treatment special and differentiated to unequal economies to open opportunities to the weakest 10. Process of wide social participation, which can be characterized like democratic 11. Economic, social, cultural and civil rights should be interdependent, indivisible and can not be waived 12. The commercial interests of the investors will not be able to have supremacy over the human rights or over the sovereignty of the States 13. Creation of founds of structural convergence for the correction of asymmetries The different definitions of Globalization must be kept aside when comparing the ALBA and CAFTA, as the goal of a foreign agreement is to aid Nicaraguas economy regardless of ideological opinion. The CAFTA is regarded as the treaty that puts forth the â€Å"Americanization† of a country, as on the contrary, the ALBA encourages Nationalistic growth. The CAFTA agreement encourages United States corporations into investing their capital in underdeveloped countries in exchange for tax liberation, lower employee costs, and a guarantee in case of corporate loss due to a social instability. The preamble of such documents states: â€Å"The CAFTA is designed to eliminate tariffs and trade barriers and expand regional opportunities for the workers, manufacturers, consumers, farmers, ranchers and service providers of all the countries.† The CAFTA, however, interferes with the local market thus damaging the economy anyway, as the bankrupted domestic companies are fully taxed and pay proper salaries to their employees, when I the other hand the foreign corporations pay miserable fees and when in regard to domestic re-investment, the it is unclear of how much of the companys profits are to be invested. Nicaragua has approved the CAFTA; however it has not been publicly accepted, as in Nicaragua, the CAFTA can be understood in the context of a US strategy to divide opposition in negotiations for other larger trade agreements. Instead of aiding US companies, the objective of the ALBA agreement is to promote cooperation and collective development of the region with an emphasis on fighting poverty and social exclusion. The general feel of the can be appreciated in Venezuelan president Hugo Chavezs opening remark at the United Nations: ALBA is not an agreement of the elite. ALBA is born from down below, from the grassroots of the population, without the people no union would be possible and that is one of the criticisms that we have always made of other integration efforts. The objective is not necessarily to maintain high economic statistics or attract investment, but rather to benefit our populations, so that they have health care, education, jobs, and so they can get out of poverty. Another factor about the ALBA and the CAFTA that must be kept in mind is the alignment is the political alignment that Nicaragua maintains of a socio-democratic regime that owes alliances to Venezuela and Cuba, as the Sandinista party owed much of their existence to Cuba during the Cold War. Due to these populist tendencies, it could be said that, the ALBA is the more appropriate treaty to sign. Socio-Economic Perspective of Globalization It is of public knowledge in Nicaragua that most of the populations regard Globalization as â€Å"not welcome†. The socio-economic perspective of Globalization can be seen from two lights the rural and the industrial perspectives. The rural perspective of globalization can be expressed as the lower classs point of view, while the industrial would affect the middle and upper classes. In short, both of these perspectives contain the entire range of the Nicaraguan society. The people that constitute the rural perspective, also known as the Nicaraguan Farmers, do not welcome globalization because of the economic impact that it will cause society. For most farmers in the outskirts of Managua and on the borders of the country, the prices set by the CAFTA are below the prices they have been used to deal with, meaning that there will be an economic impact for that sector of society. The rural branch of society represents about 70% of the Nicaraguan population, meaning that to off-set an economic pendulum from this side will affect the countrys economy greatly. The industrial perspective of the socio-economic side to globalism might actually benefit from the â€Å"no tariff† agreements as machinery and foreign goods might be less expensive to ship in, and national products will be easier to export. The industrial sector of Nicaragua can be said to constitute by 30% of the population, however, even though it is a minority in regards to the rural sector, the industrial sector represents about 50% of the Gross domestic Product in Nicaragua. The choice between which treaty to chose seems to be the more difficult question as the ALBA benefits the rural sector with its standard wages, while the CAFTA would cause a significant impact in the economy. The industrial sector on the other hand would benefit from both the CAFTA and the ALBA, as the free commerce agreement of â€Å"no tariffs† would mean that the import export of Nicaragua will of a wider range. The issue in mind however, remains on the ideological alignment concern. The rural sector of the Nicaraguan population belongs to a new mix of ideologies, a mix of neo-socialistic liberalism, where a sense of national pride and populism makes the number one goal to push on the Nicaraguan economy. The CAFTA is not appreciated in this perspective as it is seen as an agreement that binds Nicaragua to the will of the United States prices and tariffs, therefore permitting the Unites States to have a sort of control over the Nicaraguan Economy. Nicaragua has already felt the United States economical grasp in the 1970s during the Sandinista government, where the United States employed a boycott on Nicaragua. The sense of resentment has not left the Nicaraguan panorama yet, which means it might take a long time for the CAFTA to be approved by the population. The ALBA in the other hand, is more widely accepted as it involves direct proposals by Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez. In current times, Nicaragua has approved both the CAFTA and the ALBA, the differences, however, are only visible in regards to the material â€Å"gifts† provided by Hugo Chavez. On the Economical perspective, both the ALBA and the CAFTA have not made and impact. Both treaties have rendered the Nicaraguan economy with the same Gros Domestic Product than the year before their signing. Conclusion Nicaragua has been a signatory of the CAFTA for over 3 years now and has also been a signatory of the ALBA treaty for over 1 year now; however both these treaties have not saved Nicaragua from the enormous deficit that it faces. In conclusion, it can be said that Globalization will have an impact in the Nicaraguan Economy in the long-run; however, in regards to Globalism of the Socio-democratic sphere, the Latin American countries should remain united and try to roll back influences from the United States in order to be financially dependent on its own. Nicaragua needs to be financially independent, however, in its current economical state; it cannot stand on its own two feet, which means it should have the temporary support of a greater power. The choices are obviously dived between the CAFTA and the ALBA, which are obviously a reflection of the United States and Venezuela. In the wider-picture, the choice between the ALBA and the CAFTA is the choice between Capitalist democracy and a socio-Populist democracy. The relationship between Nicaragua and the United States has not been as strong as the 1930s in the time of Anastasio Somoza Garcia. The constant intervention from the United States in Nicaragua has rendered a sense of mistrust. In actuality, the CAFTA seems like another brick to the wide and high wall that the United States has been building over Latin America, the first brick being the Monroe Doctrine, which guaranteed the United States right to intervene in any Central American nation if its freedom was being threatened. Even though Nicaragua is a signatory of both the ALBA and CAFTA treaties, so far the ALBA has aided the Nicaraguan economy more than the CAFTA, due to the multiple â€Å"gifts† given by Hugo Chavez to the Republic of Nicaragua, gifts such as Oil Plants. The bottom line, nevertheless, stays the same; Globalization will have an increasing effect on the Nicaraguan economy. Bibliography http://www.ustr.gov/Trade_Agreements/Bilateral/CAFTA/CAFTADR_Final_Texts/Section_Index.html http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/news/2360 Ministro de Estado de Venezuela para la Bancoex, Integracià ³n y Comercio Exterior http://www.globalization101.org/What_is_Globalization.html http://www.newdream.org/consumer/globalization.php http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9212.html

Devising an Instructional Plan for Billiards Essay -- Gaming

Heather is a 45 year old female registered nurse who is seen regularly at a popular bistro establishment (sandwich shop); which offers billiards (pool) entertainment. Heather grew up in Barbados and did not participate in sports or activities such as bingo, hop-scotch, spin the bottle or billiards. Heather moved into my neighborhood last week; only one house away from me. After several times observing Heather at the bistro, she shared with me her interest of learning the skills of billiard so she can make the female team at the recreation center; that will be starting up within the next three or four months. Heather expressed she was less than a novice player with no experience; no natural ability; and no skills at playing billiards, but after observing the smooth techniques used in the activity, she wanted me to teach her some of my skills, and techniques. Diagnosis of the learning experience Learning Characteristics: Heather is a 45 year-old female with no previous skills, ability, or experience in playing billiards. She is very motivated to learn new skills so she can become a part of an all female billiards team. Heather displays a less than average ability for playing billiards (motor timing, perceptual timing, and eye-hand coordination) due to slight anxiety and rushing things. Heather is mentally and physically fit to take part in the activity and expresses she has no known impairments, except a slight anxiety attack at times. Heather is very excited to learn skills such as speed-accuracy trade off in order to become the best player she can be. Goal of Learning: Since Heather is less than a novice player with no experience at billiards, she will start at the program learning stage where skill refinement would be one... ...ding billiard stick at top, dominate hand holding stick at the rear. 2. Non-dominate foot planted close towards the billiard table. 3. Eyes remain focused on designated spot on cue ball that will strike a numbered ball. 4. Breathing is at a relaxed state (inhale air into the nose and exhale air out the mouth). 5. Processing any errors detection prior to executing the shot in order to make corrections. 6. Dominate hand extracts stick back and plunges stick forward in order to strike ball allowing it to hit another ball and that ball falling into a pocket. Works Cited Abraham, D. (2008). Energetic Games: Models of Self-research and Bioenergetic Development. Journal Of Conscientiology, 11(42), 133-149. Schmidt, R. A., & Wrisberg, C. A. (2008). Motor learning and performance: a situation-based learning approach. (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Language and Communication in Psychology

Through detailed consideration of one selected area of investigation evaluate the progress made by researchers in developing explanations of key aspects of the psychology of language and communication. The study of language is frequently debated in different theories of human nature. The importance of language is relevant when it to comes to the work of philosophers, neuroscientist, humanist and psychologist. Language has been applicable to Aristotle, Plato, Hume, Locke, Freud and Skinner. This essay seeks in investigating the definition of language and communication. In doing so traditional language theories will be assessed, this will later be compared to modern progression by researchers in developing explanations of the psychology of language and communication. The development of language and language disorders will be evaluated in order to successfully investigate the modern approaches to language. Firstly, the evaluation of language, its origins, process and the use have been investigated in areas such as computational theory, cognitive neuroscience, evolutional and cultural psychology in contemporary studies of language. Language is usually seen as systems for example English, French and Italian even seen as systems of language it can be used to describe other things because of its broad definition, In describing music for instance or art. These areas can have its own language that needs to be learnt to understand and interpret music for example. Language in general can be used in any form of communication. Since language is broad it is important to study specific areas of language, instead of its general definition (Bloom, . P, 2007) . This is so that direct questions can be answered. As a result the narrow questioned being investigated can be generalised to other systems of language. It is known that some form of language is used everyday, linguistics is dedicated field of the scientific study of everyday language and even though the broad term is difficult to define, linguists believe that ‘language is a formal system of agreed rules that have to be followed by a speaker. In this system there is the addition of morphology also known as the formation of words, syntax the formation of phrases and phonology, sound systems (Fromkin 2000). Secondly, Charles Dawins works have been used as a platform in the belief that’ man has an instinctive tendency to speak, as we see in the babble of our young children; whilst no child has an instinctive tendency to brew, bake, or write’ Darwin (1871). This gives the idea that language comes natural, that humans have been biologically designed to speak. Neurological studies support the idea that language is part of the human nature through the investigations of dedicated parts of the brain for language. It is believed that this might explain why every human society has language. The idea has therefore raised questions as to whether language is innate or a cultural innovation. Language deficits and aphasia has been investigated in recent studies to prove what happens when these dedicated parts for language are damaged. The works of cognitive neuropsychologist is to use theoretical frameworks and methods to specific language impairments. During the initial stages of Cognitive neuropsychological (in the second half of the nineteenth century) neurologists such as Lichtheim, Wernicke and Bastian began to make assumption about the design of the brain and its fixed language processing systems (Coltheart, 2006) this brought about the box-and-arrow diagrams in an attempt to demonstrate the brain’s architecture. In taking this thought further, how these components in the brain were localised was also studied. Even though at the time the cognitive function of language was not proved, by the failed attempt of localising the brain, it was relevant in influencing the work of other psychologist, an example is the later simplified version conducted by Coltheart. The work of Lichtheim, Wernicke and Bastian, received a lot of criticism from neurologist that were not cognitively oriented such as Head (1926) this led to fall in cognitive neuropsychological and the rise of behaviourism. Shallice, (1988) have suggested that cognitive neuropsychological data are too â€Å"noisy† and there difficult in being used further than exploring the brains functional architecture. Others such as McCloskey & Caramazza, (1991) have argued against this point. Stating that there shouldn’t be a restriction on what data produced cognitive theory at ‘any arbitrary level of detail’. Thirdly, It was not until the mid twentieth century that there was a Cognitive revolution† with the work of Broadbent (1956), Chomsky, (1959) Miller, Galanter, & Pribram,(1960), also study from Marshall and Newcombe (1966, 1973) looking into cognitive neuropsychology of reading and from Shallice and Warrington (1970) memory. This also included the work into the development of researching sentence processing in aphasia, where linguistic and psycholinguistic theory were responsible for the analysis of aphasic symptoms (Caramazza & Zurif, 1976 ; Marin, Saffran, & Schwartz, 1976) . A substantial amount of evidence afterwards has been produced in showing modularity in the brain. This shows that even though language is specifically located in the brain it is split into separate stages that may selectively be disrupted. (Berndt, Basili and Caramazza 1987) it is therefore established that specific lesions (in specific parts of the brain dedicated to language) will not affect the entire language process. This might see a patient losing the ability to understand spoken word but retain the ability to repeat words, suggesting that there are separate modules responsible for separate actions in the brain. (Schwartz,Saffran, & Marin, 1980) Fodor (1983) was also in support of the modularity of the brain after incorporating some of the ideas that were developed in cognitive neuropsychological. Foder describes a module as a domain specific. This is where the brain stores information that is responsible for a specific mental representation. For instance speech perception uses a separate path then that used in different auditory analysis and controls only acoustic signals, perceived as utterances. D. Bishop (1997). Superior cognitive functions can not affect the processes of modules in the brain, known as ‘information encapsulation’. In this processing becomes fixed. The fact that modular processing can not be influenced by higher cognitive operations describes the term. It is difficult to take no notice of incoming speech—even if attention is not used for receiving speech, a response will take place one will immediately respond on hearing a relevant sound for instance a someone own name (Foder 1983). Fodor with the support of evolutionary arguments states that the brain complex system can be broken down into layers, through case studies of selective impaired patients having a particular effect on the process of language. He believes that language therefore is innate and pre- programmed in humans. Human studies have relied wholly on researches regarding nature. The main reasons for carrying out functional neuroimaging are to improve peoples take on the variable anatomical functions of language. This then leads on to the argument that’s the much debated Broca’s area which is linked to speech production can be subdivided into three regions, a posterior and superior region that is involved with sounds of language, an interior and ventral region that is involved with meaning of words and a regions between the other two that is involved with meaning conveyed by sentences. Research carried out during the analysis on the anatomy and physiological aspects of the auditory processing in animals, show specific revelations regarding how the human brain perceives and process speech. Ignoring the concerns of critics, Researchers studying this phenomenon have resorted to using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) (which was introduced as a basic tool for monitoring language and brain activities) with the exception of people affected by induced nervous disorders such as stroke, to produce valuable evaluation, with regards to how language is organised in the human brain. Critics believe this is another example of wasted effort especially with the exclusion of patients with neurological disorders as study showed that this illness affects mainly the social and professional lives of those affected and sometimes it is not enough to impair their speech recognition abilities. PET has four advantages for the study of language: (i) it does not lose sensitivity and spatial localisation in important anterior and medial temporal lobe structures, a (current) problem with fMRI due to susceptibility artefacts and geometric shifts4,,5; (ii) its lower spatial resolution makes it orders of magnitude less susceptible to movement artefacts time-locked to stimulus and response, as occurs with overt articulation (most fMRI studies of word retrieval use covert responses); (iii) it does not create the din that is a feature of data acquisition in an MR scanner, requiring special techniques when important acoustic features in auditory stimuli may be masked6; and (iv) in the serial study of aphasic patients, it is the author's anecdotal experience that patients are far more likely to agree to come back for a second PET scan than to go back into a MRI magnet, a much more intimidating environment. † Coltheart (2005). Technological development such as the scanning of the brain has been shown to be critical in the work of language processing. Since language is built into the brain PET scans is useful method in watching the brain at work with the use of basic words. The area of the brain that is activated during the process of language can be identified (recognition of words). Further studies on thought processing (especially with regards to language) shows that certain groups of people were not able to process language normally. â€Å"a group has to be anatomically normalized into the same stereotactic space. To allow for individual variations of gyral and sulcal anatomy, the image data have to be smoothed. This is because of the problem of lesion distribution. Ablation studies in non-human animals are placed with great care, and often post mortem examinations are performed after the behavioural experiments to confirm the boundaries of the lesion. The unsubtle lesions occurring as the consequence of cerebrovascular disease, necrotising viral infections, etc. may destroy cortex, local white matter connections, major white matter tracts connecting remote cortical regions, sub-cortical nuclei, and their reciprocal connections with cortical areas. No lesion experiment in a non-human animal, relating structure to function, would be accepted for publication if clipping of a major arterial branch produced the focal injury. † Coltheart (2005) It is clear that studies on the human brain have been dependant on nature experiments with the application of liberal scientific standard. This has therefore allowed certain syndromes to be associated to lesions. ‘This sometimes have been related to marked inter-subject distinction in the cortical organisation of function, which, would mean that studies of structure–function relationships in the human, other than early perceptual and motor processes, are meaningless. It would seem much more plausible that broadly similar clinical syndromes may result from very differently sited cortical, sub-cortical or tract lesions within distributed neural systems that are essentially similar between subjects with the same handedness and uneventful development. Coltheart (2005) The data from useful neuroimaging is a vital contribution to the perspective of language and its structure. It is therefore useful when used on normal subjects in pinpointing where modular language processors a re. The traditional Broca’s area in the left frontal gyrus can be divided further into three parts it has been argued: ‘one that is posterior and superior and is involved in the sound structure (phonology) of language; a second, anterior and ventral that is concerned with the meaning of words (semantics); and a third, lying in-between the first two regions, that is involved in meaning conveyed by sentence structure (syntax). Of particular clinical relevance is the ability to determine shifts of function after focal brain lesions and how these may be potentially modified or even induced by behavioural or drug therapy’. Caplan (2006) The recent cognitive studies have been useful in producing architecture and process of the brain but there are few studies that evaluate the technique of neuroimaging in a negative manner. Poeppel, (1996) states that neuroimaging so far has told us nothing about the mind so far. In support of this notion Orden and Paap (1997) agree that nothing has been learnt from neuroimaging and never will. It is believed that complexity of cognition can not produces evidence through this technique. Henson (2005) has provided a vital framework for considering the role of brainimaging data in cognitive psychology. He writes: â€Å"My main argument is that, provided one makes the assumption that there is some ‘systematic’mapping from psychological function to brain structure, then functional neuroimaging data simply comprise another dependent variable, along with behavioural data, that can be used to distinguish between competing psychological theories† (p. 194). This idea recognises that there is some systematic mapping from psychological function to the structure of the brain. To conclude, Cognitive neuropsychology can be easily seen as a branch of cognitive psychology which has been vital to study of language and how it is processed in the brain. It has been useful in creating theories through the study of subjects performance in which normal cognition are identified. There have been several studies in support of how the language is processed in the brain to further prove or disprove these theories. The studies of these damaged sections have been able to be looked at through the advancement of technology. These scans have been able to explain a range of questions about the processing of language in the brain for instance, the lateralized view of the human brain. This has also been observed in animals that also use sound for communication e. g. monkeys birds and dolphins. In this the control of sound production is usually in the left hemisphere also seen in humans. The two major areas of the human brain that are responsible for language are the Broca's area ,this is partially responsible for putting sentences together and using correct syntax secondly the Wernicke's area, which is partially responsible for language processing (untangling others' sentences and analyzing them for syntax, inflection, etc. ). Broca aphasia is used to describe if the Broca areas is damaged. side effects show slow, hesitant speech that lack grammer. Typical Broca's aphasics can not words not essential to the significance of the sentence, such as the and and. When the Wernicke area is damaged then it is known as Wernicke's aphasia. It can be seen as opposite to Broca's aphasia. Wernicke's aphasics are able to make general sentences but they are often senseless and include made-up words. Wernicke's aphasics show signs of understanding others' speech, but have difficulty naming objects Other types of aphasia noted in brain-damaged patients can show even worse effects. If Wernicke's and Broca's area are disconnected, patients struggle to repeat sentence said out to them. This shows that there is the possibility Wernicke's area, which has processed the sentence heard, is unable to communicate it to Broca's area for repetition. In another type, Wernicke's and Broca's areas remain connected but cannot communicate with the rest of the brain. Patients can only repeat sentences but fail to speak on impulse speech (Pinker 1994).

Community College vs University Essay

Deciding on whether to attend a community college or a university can be a very tough decision. Often times we hear negative opinions and comments about attending a community college instead of a university. Community colleges are much more affordable. They have smaller classes, and they are much more convenient than universities. Through some people experiences and research, there are many benefits to attending a community college before university. There are many differences between going to a university right after finishing high school and going to a community college for the first two years. Such differences can be seen in terms of finances, degree and environment. One of the most important benefits to attending a community college is the financial savings. The average tuition at community college is $42 per credit hour, and the average for universities can vary between $1500 and $4000 depending on whether the university is public or private. This is a huge difference in price p er semester hour. Furthermore, at community college the books are less expensive. You can chose to buy a new book or a used book, and you still have the option to rent the books. Some people pay thousands of dollars to attend a university, and after a year they were no closer to a degree than a community college student. They are just further in debt. There are a number of different degrees available from four year universities; the options are far fewer at a community college. Community college programs offer Associate of Arts degrees. These Associate of Arts degrees are extremely helpful when it comes to transferring or pursuing a higher education later on. Community colleges are known for giving nontraditional students many convenient ways to obtain a career. Married students, students with children, or even students who work full time may not have the time or the finances to complete a 4 year program. Furthermore, Community colleges offer vocational certificates in varies fields. These certificate programs are designed to prepare a student for an entry-level job upon completion of the program. Students may decide to take only a couple of semesters to get a certificate in a certain field such as nursing, welding, or surgical technology. Nontraditional students may benefit from one of the many certificate programs offered at a community college. Universities, however, only offer four years programs or bachelors  degrees. They do not offer courses in vocational education, so they are best for students who plan on going into business or education. The environment between a community college and a four year university differs greatly. For example, community college tends to have fewer students per class, which mean students can have more opportunity to interact with their teacher and vice verse. Teachers with smaller classes are able to spend more time making sure that all the students get a quality education in their classroom. Likewise, if students have questions they may feel more comfortable asking them in a smaller and more intimate setting. On the other hand, a university lecture hall can hold hundreds of students, all participating in a single class. The professors are always busy doing research and keeping up with their professor status, which means no time to interact with their students. In conclusion, because of community college is more affordable, still have different options for 2 years degrees and have smaller classes, the community college is a better choice than universities for high school students. People can save lot money going to community college for their first two years, so they can put the saved money toward to the two or four more years to universities classes for their a Bachelor’s degrees, Master’s degrees and or Doctorates.